Cognitive Psychology: Object Perception and the Five Senses

 

 (CP-10) Object Perception and the Five Senses

Object perception refers to the way our brain processes and interprets sensory information from the environment to form a meaningful representation of objects. The five senses - vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch - play a crucial role in object perception by providing the brain with the necessary sensory input. In this article, we will explore the different aspects of object perception and how each of the five senses contributes to it.

The Five Senses and Object Perception:

1. Vision: Vision is perhaps the most important sense for object perception, as it provides us with a rich and detailed representation of the external world. The retina in our eyes captures visual information and sends it to the visual cortex in the brain for processing. The visual cortex uses this information to recognize objects and interpret their features, such as shape, size, and color.

Visual illusions, such as the Müller-Lyer illusion or the Ponzo illusion, demonstrate how our brain interprets visual information based on past experiences and expectations. Object recognition is another important aspect of visual perception, as it allows us to quickly identify objects in our environment.

2. Hearing: Hearing is another important sense for object perception, as it allows us to localize and recognize sounds in our environment. The ear captures sound waves and sends them to the auditory cortex in the brain for processing. The auditory cortex uses this information to determine the direction and distance of sound sources and to recognize familiar sounds, such as voices or musical instruments.

Sound localization is an important aspect of auditory perception, as it helps us navigate and interact with our environment. Object recognition is also important for auditory perception, as it allows us to recognize sounds that are associated with specific objects or events.

3. Smell: Smell, or olfaction, is a sense that is often overlooked but plays a crucial role in object perception. The olfactory receptors in our nose capture airborne molecules and send them to the olfactory cortex in the brain for processing. The olfactory cortex uses this information to identify and interpret different smells.

Odor identification is an important aspect of olfactory perception, as it allows us to recognize and distinguish between different scents. Object recognition is also important for olfactory perception, as certain smells are associated with specific objects or events.

4. Taste: Taste, or gustation, is another sense that is often overlooked but plays an important role in object perception. The taste receptors on our tongue capture different chemicals in the food we eat and send signals to the gustatory cortex in the brain for processing. The gustatory cortex uses this information to identify and interpret different tastes.

Taste identification is an important aspect of gustatory perception, as it allows us to recognize and distinguish between different flavors. Object recognition is also important for gustatory perception, as certain tastes are associated with specific objects or events.

5. Touch: Touch, or somatosensation, is the sense that allows us to perceive pressure, temperature, and texture. The tactile receptors in our skin capture sensory information and send it to the somatosensory cortex in the brain for processing. The somatosensory cortex uses this information to recognize objects based on their texture, shape, and size.

Texture discrimination is an important aspect of tactile perception, as it allows us to distinguish between different objects based on their surface features. Object recognition is also important for tactile perception, as it allows us to recognize objects based on their shape and size.

Multisensory Integration in Object Perception:

Multisensory integration refers to the way our brain combines sensory information from different senses to form a coherent representation of objects. For example, seeing a cup and hearing it being filled with water helps us form a more complete and accurate representation of the cup.

Multisensory integration plays a crucial role in object perception and is essential for everyday life. For example, when we hear a car beeping, we can immediately turn our head to locate the source of the sound. This is because our brain combines the auditory information from the sound with visual information from our peripheral vision to form a complete representation of the environment.

Another example of multisensory integration in object perception is the McGurk effect, where the brain integrates visual and auditory information to perceive a different sound than what is actually being heard. This effect occurs when the mouth movements of a speaker do not match the sounds they are producing, causing the brain to perceive a different sound that matches the mouth movements.

Disorders of Object Perception:

Disorders of object perception are conditions where the brain has difficulty processing and interpreting sensory information from the environment. Some common disorders of object perception include:

1. Visual Agnosia: A condition where the brain has difficulty recognizing and identifying objects, even though the person may have normal vision.
2. Auditory Agnosia: A condition where the brain has difficulty recognizing and interpreting sounds, even though the person may have normal hearing.
3. Anosmia: A condition where the brain has difficulty processing and interpreting smells, leading to a loss of sense of smell.
4. Ageusia: A condition where the brain has difficulty processing and interpreting tastes, leading to a loss of sense of taste.
5. Somatosensory Agnosia: A condition where the brain has difficulty recognizing and interpreting touch sensations, leading to difficulty identifying objects based on their texture or shape.

Conclusion

In conclusion, object perception is a complex process that involves the integration of sensory information from the five senses. Each sense plays a unique role in object perception, and multisensory integration is essential for forming a complete and accurate representation of objects in the environment. Understanding how the brain processes sensory information can help us better understand disorders of object perception and develop interventions to improve object recognition and everyday functioning.

Related links:

(CP-01) The Nature and Scope of Cognitive Psychology

(CP-02) Historical perspectives of cognitive psychology

(CP-03) Neural representation of information in the brain with respect to cognitive psychology

(CP-04) Organization of the brain and neural localization of function

(CP-05) Brain and Neural Localization of Function for Cognition

(CP-06) Information coding in visual cells

(CP-07) Memory and Types of Memory

(CP-08) Pattern Recognition, Template Matching and Feature Analysis

(CP-09) Perceptual Laws of Organization

(CP-10) Object Perception and the Five Senses

References:

1. Amedi, A., von Kriegstein, K., van Atteveldt, N. M., & Beauchamp, M. S. (2005). Functional imaging of human crossmodal identification and object recognition. Experimental Brain Research, 166(3-4), 559-571.
2. Bremner, A. J. (2017). Object perception. In The Oxford handbook of perceptual organization (pp. 163-180). Oxford University Press.
3. De Gelder, B., & Vroomen, J. (2000). The perception of emotions by ear and by eye. Cognition and Emotion, 14(3), 289-311.
4. Driver, J., & Noesselt, T. (2008). Multisensory interplay reveals crossmodal influences on 'sensory-specific' brain regions, neural responses, and judgments. Neuron, 57(1), 11-23.
5. Goldstein, E. B. (2019). Sensation and perception. Cengage Learning.
6. Gori, M., Del Viva, M., Sandini, G., & Burr, D. C. (2008). Young children do not integrate visual and haptic form information. Current Biology, 18(9), 694-698.
7. Jones, K. T., & Byram, A. C. (2014). A review of multisensory perception in education. In Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 611-622). Springer.
8. Kayser, C., & Logothetis, N. K. (2007). Do early sensory cortices integrate cross-modal information? Brain Structure and Function, 212(2), 121-132.
9. Kravitz, D. J., Saleem, K. S., Baker, C. I., & Mishkin, M. (2011). A new neural framework for visuospatial processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(4), 217-230.
10. McGurk, H., & MacDonald, J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264(5588), 746-748.
11. Olofsson, J. K., & Gottfried, J. A. (2015). The muted sense: Neurocognitive limitations of olfactory language. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(6), 314-321.
12. Ramachandran, V. S. (1994). Perception of shape from shading. Nature, 331(6152), 163-166.
13. Tse, P. U. (2019). Visual attention: The past 25 years. Vision Research, 156, 1-8.
14. Zatorre, R. J., & Jones-Gotman, M. (2000). Functional imaging of the chemical senses. In The chemical senses (pp. 381-394). Springer.

Top of Form

 

Cognitive Psychology: Memory and Types of Memory

 

(CP-07) Memory and Types of Memory

Memory is an essential aspect of human cognition, enabling individuals to remember past experiences, learn new information, and make decisions based on previous knowledge. Memory is a complex and multi-faceted process that involves several types and subtypes of memory. In this article, we will explore the different types of memory and their subtypes, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Memory formation and retrieval involve several processes, including encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding: During encoding, information is perceived and transformed into a neural code that can be stored in the brain.

Storage: Storage involves the consolidation of the memory into long-term storage, where it can be retrieved later.

Retrieval: Retrieval involves accessing stored information and bringing it back into consciousness.

These processes are complex and involve various brain regions and neural pathways, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex.

Types of Memory:

Memory can be broadly classified into three main types, each with its unique characteristics and functions:

1. Sensory Memory
2. Short-term Memory
3. Long-term Memory

Sensory Memory:

Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory processing, which receives and temporarily holds sensory information from the environment. Sensory memory is further divided into two subtypes, which are:

1. Iconic Memory: Iconic memory is a subtype of sensory memory that is responsible for processing and storing visual information. It is also known as visual sensory memory and lasts for a very short time, ranging from 0.5 to 2 seconds.
2. Echoic Memory: Echoic memory is another subtype of sensory memory that processes and stores auditory information. It is also known as auditory sensory memory and can last up to four seconds.

Short-term Memory:

Short-term memory is the type of memory responsible for holding and manipulating information for a brief period. Short-term memory has a limited capacity, and the information stored in this type of memory is quickly forgotten if not rehearsed or encoded into long-term memory. It can hold information for up to 20-30 seconds, but the duration can be increased with the use of mnemonic strategies.

Working memory is called "working" because it actively manipulates and processes information in order to complete everyday task, rather than simply storing it like long-term memory. This active manipulation involves the use of attention and cognitive control to select and organize information, as well as to update and maintain it in an active state for short periods of time.

Short-term memory is essential for everyday functioning, such as remembering phone numbers, following instructions, and performing mental calculations.

Long-term Memory:

Long-term memory is the type of memory responsible for storing information for an extended period. It is divided into two subtypes, which are:

1. Explicit Memory: Explicit memory is also known as declarative memory and is responsible for storing information that can be consciously retrieved, such as facts, events, and personal experiences. Explicit memory is further divided into two subtypes, which are:

·         Episodic Memory: Episodic memory is responsible for storing information about specific events or episodes that have been experienced by an individual. It enables individuals to recall past experiences and events in vivid detail, such as the first day of school, a family vacation, or a significant life event.

·         Semantic Memory: Semantic memory is responsible for storing general knowledge and facts that are not related to personal experiences, such as the meaning of words, concepts, and principles.

2. Implicit Memory: Implicit memory is responsible for storing information that is not consciously accessible, such as skills, habits, and conditioned responses. Implicit memory enables individuals to perform tasks without conscious awareness, such as riding a bike, typing on a keyboard, or playing a musical instrument.

Memory plays a critical role in our daily lives, influencing our decision-making, problem-solving, and overall cognitive functioning. It is also an important aspect of various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, and education.

Research has shown that memory can be influenced by several factors, such as age, genetics, environment, and emotions. For example, as we age, our memory capacity and efficiency tend to decline, making it more challenging to remember information accurately.

Furthermore, emotions can impact memory processing, with emotionally charged events often being better remembered than neutral events. This is due to the amygdala, a part of the brain responsible for processing emotions, which can enhance memory consolidation and retrieval.

Memory can also be affected by various disorders, such as amnesia, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. These disorders can impact different types and subtypes of memory, leading to impairments in memory processing and retrieval.

Conclusion:

Memory is a complex and dynamic process that is essential for human cognition and functioning. Memory is multi-faceted process that involves several types and subtypes of memory. Understanding the different types of memory and their subtypes is essential for cognitive psychology students to understand the mechanisms underlying memory processing and retrieval. Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory are the three main types of memory, with each subtype serving a unique function in the overall process of memory.

 

References:

1. Anderson, J. R. (1974). Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 6(4), 451–474.
2. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. The psychology of learning and motivation, 2, 89-195.
3. Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29.
4. Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. Psychology of learning and motivation, 8, 47-89.
5. Budson, A. E., & Price, B. H. (2005). Memory dysfunction. New England Journal of Medicine, 352(7), 692-699.
6. Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies.
7. Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory?. Progress in brain research, 169, 323-338.
8. Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 11(6), 671-684.
9. Craik, F. I., & Rose, N. S. (2012). Memory encoding and aging: A neurocognitive perspective. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(7), 1729-1739.
10. Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook. Psychology Press.
11. Fuster, J. M. (2009). Cortex and memory: emergence of a new paradigm. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(11), 2047-2072.
12. Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., & Mangun, G. R. (2014). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. WW Norton & Company.
13. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97.
14. Morris, R. G., Garrud, P., Rawlins, J. N., & O'Keefe, J. (1982). Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions. Nature, 297(5868), 681-683.
15. Nairne, J. S. (2002). Remembering over the short-term: The case against the standard model. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 53-81.
16. Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, memory, and cognition, 21(4), 803.
17. Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13(3), 501–518.
18. Schacter, D. L., & Tulving, E. (1994). What are the memory systems of 1994?. In Memory systems (pp.

19. Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2007). The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: Remembering the past and imagining the future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1481), 773-786.
20. Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological monographs: General and applied, 74(11), 1-29.
21. Squire, L. R., & Zola, S. M. (1996). Structure and function of declarative and nondeclarative memory systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(24), 13515-13522.
22. Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 1-25.
23. Wixted, J. T. (2004). The psychology and neuroscience of forgetting. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 235-269.

Top of Form

 

Psychology: Historical perspectives / School of thoughts in psychology

(ITP-03) Historical perspectives / School of thoughts in psychology

Abstract: This article explores the history of psychology and its major historical perspectives, including structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, Gestaltism, behaviorism, humanistic psychology, and cognitive psychology. Structuralism was the first school of psychology, which focused on the scientific study of the structure of the mind and conscious experience. Functionalism emerged as a response to structuralism and emphasized the adaptive functions of behavior and mental processes. Psychodynamics highlighted the role of unconscious thoughts and experiences in shaping behavior and personality. Gestalt psychology emphasized the holistic nature of human perception and the importance of context in shaping our perceptions. Behaviorism focused on the study of observable behavior and its relationship with the environment. Humanistic psychology emphasized personal growth and self-actualization. Cognitive psychology studied the mental processes involved in thought and behavior. The article concludes that the historical perspectives in psychology offer valuable information and insights that are still relevant today.

Introduction: Top of Form

Psychology, as a discipline, has a long and rich history that spans centuries of ideas, theories, and experiments. The field of psychology has evolved over time and has been influenced by various schools of thought, cultural and social factors, and technological advancements. In this blog, we will take a look at some of the most important historical perspectives in psychology and how they have shaped the discipline into what it is today.

Structuralism:

Structuralism is considered the first school of psychology and was founded by Wilhelm Wundt in the late 19th century. Wundt believed that the structure of the mind could be studied scientifically and that conscious experience could be broken down into its smallest components, much like a chemist would analyze the structure of a chemical compound. Structuralists used introspection, or self-reflection, to study conscious experience and attempted to identify the basic building blocks of thought and perception. Although structuralism was short-lived, it paved the way for other schools of psychology, such as functionalism, and it helped establish psychology as an experimental science.

Functionalism:

Functionalism was developed as a response to structuralism and was primarily concerned with the practical and adaptive functions of behavior and mental processes. The founder of functionalism, William James, believed that psychology should focus on the study of how behavior and mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment. This perspective emphasized the importance of understanding the role of behavior and mental processes in everyday life, and it had a significant impact on the development of psychology as a scientific discipline.

Psychodynamics:

Psychodynamics, founded by Sigmund Freud, is a theory of personality and psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of unconscious thoughts and experiences in shaping behavior and personality. According to Freud, unconscious conflicts and desires influence behavior and can lead to psychological disorders. Psychoanalysis has been highly influential in the field of psychology and continues to be a popular approach to understanding and treating psychological disorders.

Gestaltism:

Gestalt psychology is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the holistic nature of human perception, emphasizing the importance of understanding how people organize sensory information into meaningful patterns. Gestalt psychology was founded by a group of German psychologists, including Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, believed that the brain has a natural tendency to perceive things as wholes rather than as a collection of parts, and that context plays a crucial role in shaping our perceptions. This perspective has had a significant impact on fields such as art, design, and architecture, and continues to inform contemporary research in perception and cognition.

Behaviourism:

Behaviourism, founded by John Watson and B.F. Skinner, is a perspective that focuses on the study of observable behavior and its relationship with the environment. Behaviourists believed that psychology should focus solely on observable behavior and that mental processes and unconscious thoughts were not scientific subjects of study. This perspective had a significant impact on the field of psychology, particularly in the area of learning and development, and it remains an important perspective in modern psychology.

Humanistic psychology:

Humanistic psychology, which emerged in the mid-20th century, is a perspective that emphasizes the unique qualities of individuals and their inherent drive toward personal growth and self-actualization. The founders of humanistic psychology, including Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, believed that people have a natural tendency to strive for self-fulfillment and that psychological disorders result from a failure to achieve this fulfillment. Humanistic psychology has been influential in the development of a number of therapeutic approaches, including client-centered therapy.

1.       Cognitive psychology:

Cognitive psychology emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as a response to the limitations of behaviorism and its narrow focus on observable behavior. Cognitive psychologists study the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and other aspects of thought and behavior. This perspective has been influential in shaping our understanding of how the mind works and has led to the development of numerous theories and models of cognition, including models of memory and attention.

In conclusion, the history of psychology is a rich and fascinating one, filled with a diverse array of perspectives and theories. Each of these perspectives has made a significant contribution to the field and has helped shape psychology into the dynamic and multi-disciplinary discipline it is today. Whether you are interested in the unconscious mind, human behavior and development, or the therapeutic process, the historical perspectives in psychology offer a wealth of information and insights that are still relevant and valuable today.

References:

1. B.R. Hergenhahn (2009). An Introduction to the History of Psychology (7th edition). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
2. D. N. Robinson (2000). An Intellectual History of Psychology (3rd edition). University of Wisconsin Press.
3. R.J. Corsini (2010). Encyclopedia of Psychology (4th edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4. S. Kosslyn and D. Gazzaniga (2007). Psychological Science (4th edition). W.W. Norton & Company.
5. W. F. B. Mills (1999). The History of Psychological Thought (5th edition). Allyn & Bacon.
6. R. C. Atkinson, R. C., & Hilgard, E. R. (2002). Introduction to Psychology (14th edition). Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
7. J. W. Santrock (2003). Life-Span Development (9th edition). McGraw-Hill.
8. E. H. Gombrich (2010). The Story of Art (16th edition). Phaidon Press Limited.
9. J. R. Anderson (2002). Cognitive Psychology and its Implications (5th edition). W.H. Freeman and Company.
10. S. F. Kosslyn and O. Koenig (2005). Wet Mind: The New Cognitive Neuroscience (2nd edition). Psychology Press.