Psychology: Forgetting; Nature, causes, theories and disorders

 

(ITP-16) Forgetting: Nature, causes, theories and disorders

Abstract: This article provides a comprehensive overview of forgetting, including its nature, causes, and related disorders. Forgetting is the inability to retrieve previously stored information from the memory, and it can happen due to various factors such as decay, interference, and retrieval failure.The article also explores various theories of forgetting, including decay theory, interference theory, and retrieval failure theory. Additionally, forgetting can be a symptom of disorders such as amnesia, Alzheimer's disease, and dementia. The article also provides techniques to improve memory retention, such as rehearsal, chunking, association, and visualization. Furthermore, factors such as age, stress, sleep deprivation, and medication can also influence forgetting. Finally, when forgetting becomes a problem, seeking professional help is important, as forgetting can be a symptom of depression, anxiety, and ADHD.Top of Form

Have you ever forgotten something important, like a friend's birthday or a meeting with your professor? Or perhaps you have struggled to recall an answer during a test, even though you studied extensively for it. These experiences are common and frustrating, but they are also part of a natural process known as forgetting.

What is forgetting?

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information that was previously stored in the memory. This can happen for various reasons, including decay, interference, and retrieval failure. Decay refers to the gradual fading of memory traces over time. Interference happens when new information interferes with the retrieval of older information. Retrieval failure occurs when we are unable to access stored information due to inadequate cues or context.

Causes of Forgetting written in Theories:

Various theories have been proposed to explain the causes of forgetting. Here are some of the most prominent theories and their authors:

a.       Decay Theory by Ebbinghaus: This theory suggests that forgetting occurs due decay. Decay is the fading of memory traces over time. If we do not use or reinforce the memory traces, they will eventually be deleted.

b.      Interference Theory by Muller and Pilzecker: This theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to interference from other memories. Interference occurs when new information interferes with the retrieval of older information. Interference can happen in two ways:

·         Retroactive interference: new information interferes with the retrieval of old information.

·         Proactive interference: old information interferes with the retrieval of new information.

c.       Retrieval Failure Theory by Tulving and Thomson: This theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to Retrieval failure. Retrieval failure happens when we are unable to retrieve information due to inadequate cues or context. This can happen when we lack the necessary information or cues to access a particular memory.

d.      Motivated Forgetting Theory by Sigmund Freud: This theory suggests that forgetting occurs when we repress or suppress unpleasant or unwanted memories to protect ourselves from psychological harm.

e.      Encoding Failure Theory by Craik and Lockhart: This theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to inadequate encoding of information. If we do not encode information properly, it will not be stored in the memory.

Understanding these theories can help us better understand the nature of forgetting and develop strategies to improve memory retention.Top of Form

 

Disorders related to forgetting

Forgetting can also be a symptom of various disorders, such as:

1. Amnesia: Amnesia is a condition where an individual is unable to remember past events or form new memories. It can be caused by head injuries, strokes, or degenerative diseases.

·         Retrograde amnesia is a type of amnesia where a person is unable to remember events that occurred before the onset of amnesia.

·         Anterograde amnesia, on the other hand, is a type of amnesia where a person is unable to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

2. Alzheimer's Disorder: Alzheimer's Disorder is a progressive brain disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. It is the most common cause of dementia in older adults.
3. Dementia: Dementia is a general term for a decline in cognitive function that interferes with daily life. It can be caused by various conditions, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.

How to improve memory retention

Although forgetting is a natural process, there are various techniques that can improve memory retention, such as:

1. Rehearsal: Rehearsal involves repeating information to reinforce memory traces.
2. Chunking: Chunking involves grouping information into smaller units to make it easier to remember.
3. Association: Association involves linking new information to existing knowledge or memories.
4. Visualization: Visualization involves creating mental images to aid memory retention.

Factors of Forgetting: Forgetting can be influenced by various other factors such as age, stress, sleep deprivation, and medication.

·         As we age, our memory and ability to retain new information may decline.

·         Stress and sleep deprivation can also affect memory, as they can interfere with the encoding and consolidation of new information in the memory.

·         Certain medications such as tranquilizers, sedatives, and antihistamines can also affect memory and lead to forgetting.

Forgetting is not always bad: It is important to note that forgetting is not always a bad thing. In fact, forgetting can be a useful process that helps us filter out irrelevant information and focus on what is important. Forgetting also allows us to update our knowledge and adapt to new situations.

Professional help for Forgetting: When forgetting becomes a problem and interferes with daily life, it is important to seek professional help. Forgetting can be a symptom of various disorders such as depression, anxiety, and ADHD. These conditions can affect memory and lead to forgetting, along with other symptoms such as difficulty concentrating, low mood, and anxiety.

Conclusion:

In summary, forgetting is a natural process that can occur due to various reasons. Memory is a complex system that can be influenced by various factors. Understanding the causes of forgetting and the techniques to improve memory retention can help in retaining important information. However, when forgetting becomes a problem and interferes with daily life, it is important to seek professional help.

References:

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Teaching and Learning Skills: Child Development

(TALS-10) Child Development

Child development is a fascinating and complex area of study that has been explored by psychologists for many years. As a Cognitive Psychology student, it's important to have a solid understanding of the various stages and aspects of child development, as well as the different theories that have been proposed to explain it.

Ages of Child Development:

Child development is typically divided into different stages, based on a child's age. The stages are:

• ·         Infancy: Birth to 2 years
• ·         Early Childhood: 2 to 6 years
• ·         Middle Childhood: 6 to 11 years
• ·         Adolescence: 11 to 18 years

Each of these stages is characterized by specific changes and milestones in a child's development.

Main Areas of Child Development:

There are six main areas of child development that psychologists have identified. They are:

Social development: This refers to a child's ability to form relationships, interact with others, and develop a sense of self.

Emotional development: This involves a child's ability to recognize and regulate their emotions, as well as their ability to understand the emotions of others.

Physical development: This includes a child's growth and development in terms of their body size, motor skills, and sensory abilities.

Psychological development: This refers to a child's cognitive abilities, including their thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

Behavioural development: This involves a child's actions and reactions to their environment, as well as their ability to learn from experiences.

Speech/Language development: This includes a child's ability to communicate through language, both verbally and non-verbally.

Theories of Child Psychological Development:

Over the years, many different theories have been proposed to explain child psychological development. Here are some of the most prominent theories:

Social development theory (by Lev Vygotsky): This theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction in a child's development. It suggests that children learn from their interactions with others and that social experiences are critical to their development. Keywords: Language, Culture, MKO, Play with peer.   

Psychodynamic theory of development (by Sigmund Freud): This theory proposes that a child's personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and experiences that occur during childhood. Keywords: Id, Ego, Super ego, levels of mind.

Social Learning Theory (by Albert bandura): This theory suggest that a child's behavior is shaped by their environment and the consequences of their actions. They also emphasize the importance of modeling and imitation in learning. Keywords: Imitation, Modeling

Cognitive development theory (By Jean Piaget): His idea of cognitive development is widely regarded as the significant study of normal intellectual growth in children. His view is that maturation of the brain is what leads to intellectual growth. Keywords: Assimilation, Accommodation, Stages of cognitive development.

Language Development:

Language development is one of the most important aspects of child development, as it is essential for communication and social interaction. Here are some key aspects of language development:

Do Newborns Communicate? While newborns cannot speak, they do communicate through crying, facial expressions, and body movements.

Intentional Vocalisation (Cooing): As infants grow, they begin to make intentional vocalizations, such as cooing and babbling, which are an important precursor to language.

Babbling and Gesturing: Around 6 months of age, infants begin to babble and make gestures, such as pointing, which are important in developing communication skills.

Understanding: By 12 months of age, most infants have a basic understanding of words and their meanings.

Holophrastic Speech: Around 18 months of age children begin to use one-word utterances or holophrastic speech to express themselves.

Vocabulary Growth: By age 2, children's vocabulary begins to grow rapidly, and they begin to combine words to form simple sentences.

Theories of Language Development:

Like child psychological development, there are also several theories proposed to explain language development. Here are some of the most notable theories:

Chomsky and the language acquisition device: Chomsky proposed that all humans are born with an innate ability to learn language, which he called the language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD enables children to quickly and efficiently learn the grammar and structure of their native language.

Skinner and reinforcement: Skinner's theory proposes that language is learned through reinforcement and shaping. For example, when a child says a word correctly, they receive positive reinforcement, which encourages them to continue using that word.

Social pragmatics theory: This theory suggests that children learn language through their social interactions with others, including their caregivers and peers. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the social context of language use, such as the speaker's intentions and the listener's needs.

Conclusion:

Child development and language development are complex and fascinating areas of study that are essential for Cognitive Psychology students to understand. By familiarizing yourself with the different stages of child development, the main areas of development, and the theories proposed to explain it, you can gain a deeper understanding of how children grow and learn. Similarly, by studying language development and the theories behind it, you can gain insight into how humans acquire language and communicate with each other.

Reference:

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12. Kuhl, P. K. (2004). Early language acquisition: Cracking the speech code. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(11), 831-843.
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15. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Copley Publishing Group.
16. Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Harvard University Press.
17. Tomasello, M., & Rakoczy, H. (2003). What makes human cognition unique? From individual to shared to collective intentionality. Mind & Language, 18(2), 121-147.
18. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.