Teaching and Learning Skills: Child Development

(TALS-10) Child Development

Child development is a fascinating and complex area of study that has been explored by psychologists for many years. As a Cognitive Psychology student, it's important to have a solid understanding of the various stages and aspects of child development, as well as the different theories that have been proposed to explain it.

Ages of Child Development:

Child development is typically divided into different stages, based on a child's age. The stages are:

• ·         Infancy: Birth to 2 years
• ·         Early Childhood: 2 to 6 years
• ·         Middle Childhood: 6 to 11 years
• ·         Adolescence: 11 to 18 years

Each of these stages is characterized by specific changes and milestones in a child's development.

Main Areas of Child Development:

There are six main areas of child development that psychologists have identified. They are:

Social development: This refers to a child's ability to form relationships, interact with others, and develop a sense of self.

Emotional development: This involves a child's ability to recognize and regulate their emotions, as well as their ability to understand the emotions of others.

Physical development: This includes a child's growth and development in terms of their body size, motor skills, and sensory abilities.

Psychological development: This refers to a child's cognitive abilities, including their thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

Behavioural development: This involves a child's actions and reactions to their environment, as well as their ability to learn from experiences.

Speech/Language development: This includes a child's ability to communicate through language, both verbally and non-verbally.

Theories of Child Psychological Development:

Over the years, many different theories have been proposed to explain child psychological development. Here are some of the most prominent theories:

Social development theory (by Lev Vygotsky): This theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction in a child's development. It suggests that children learn from their interactions with others and that social experiences are critical to their development. Keywords: Language, Culture, MKO, Play with peer.   

Psychodynamic theory of development (by Sigmund Freud): This theory proposes that a child's personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and experiences that occur during childhood. Keywords: Id, Ego, Super ego, levels of mind.

Social Learning Theory (by Albert bandura): This theory suggest that a child's behavior is shaped by their environment and the consequences of their actions. They also emphasize the importance of modeling and imitation in learning. Keywords: Imitation, Modeling

Cognitive development theory (By Jean Piaget): His idea of cognitive development is widely regarded as the significant study of normal intellectual growth in children. His view is that maturation of the brain is what leads to intellectual growth. Keywords: Assimilation, Accommodation, Stages of cognitive development.

Language Development:

Language development is one of the most important aspects of child development, as it is essential for communication and social interaction. Here are some key aspects of language development:

Do Newborns Communicate? While newborns cannot speak, they do communicate through crying, facial expressions, and body movements.

Intentional Vocalisation (Cooing): As infants grow, they begin to make intentional vocalizations, such as cooing and babbling, which are an important precursor to language.

Babbling and Gesturing: Around 6 months of age, infants begin to babble and make gestures, such as pointing, which are important in developing communication skills.

Understanding: By 12 months of age, most infants have a basic understanding of words and their meanings.

Holophrastic Speech: Around 18 months of age children begin to use one-word utterances or holophrastic speech to express themselves.

Vocabulary Growth: By age 2, children's vocabulary begins to grow rapidly, and they begin to combine words to form simple sentences.

Theories of Language Development:

Like child psychological development, there are also several theories proposed to explain language development. Here are some of the most notable theories:

Chomsky and the language acquisition device: Chomsky proposed that all humans are born with an innate ability to learn language, which he called the language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD enables children to quickly and efficiently learn the grammar and structure of their native language.

Skinner and reinforcement: Skinner's theory proposes that language is learned through reinforcement and shaping. For example, when a child says a word correctly, they receive positive reinforcement, which encourages them to continue using that word.

Social pragmatics theory: This theory suggests that children learn language through their social interactions with others, including their caregivers and peers. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the social context of language use, such as the speaker's intentions and the listener's needs.

Conclusion:

Child development and language development are complex and fascinating areas of study that are essential for Cognitive Psychology students to understand. By familiarizing yourself with the different stages of child development, the main areas of development, and the theories proposed to explain it, you can gain a deeper understanding of how children grow and learn. Similarly, by studying language development and the theories behind it, you can gain insight into how humans acquire language and communicate with each other.

Reference:

1. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2. Berk, L. E. (2013). Child Development (9th ed.). Pearson.
3. Bornstein, M. H., & Arterberry, M. E. (2010). The development of object concepts in infancy. In U. Goswami (Ed.), The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development (2nd ed., pp. 253-271). Wiley-Blackwell.
4. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
5. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. Norton.
6. Feldman, R. S. (2016). Child Development (8th ed.). Pearson.
7. Gelman, S. A. (2003). The essential child: Origins of essentialism in everyday thought. Oxford University Press.
8. Gentner, D. (1982). Why nouns are learned before verbs: Linguistic relativity versus natural partitioning. In S. A. Kuczaj II (Ed.), Language Development: Vol. 2. Language, Thought, and Culture (pp. 301-334). Lawrence Erlbaum.
9. Gleason, J. B., & Ratner, N. B. (2019). The Development of Language (10th ed.). Pearson.
10. Gopnik, A. (1999). The scientist in the crib: Minds, brains, and how children learn. HarperCollins.
11. Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. MIT Press.
12. Kuhl, P. K. (2004). Early language acquisition: Cracking the speech code. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(11), 831-843.
13. McLeod, S. A. (2018). Child Development Theories. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/child-development.html
14. Papalia, D. E., Feldman, R. D., & Martorell, G. (2021). Experience Human Development (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
15. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Copley Publishing Group.
16. Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Harvard University Press.
17. Tomasello, M., & Rakoczy, H. (2003). What makes human cognition unique? From individual to shared to collective intentionality. Mind & Language, 18(2), 121-147.
18. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.

 

Cognitive Psychology: Perceptual Laws of Organization

(CP-09) Perceptual Laws of Organization

 

Introduction.

As studying cognitive psychology, you know that perception plays a big role in how we make sense of the world. One important part of perception is organizing the many sensory details we experience every day.Perceptual organization is the process by which the brain groups and structures sensory information into meaningful experiences. This process plays a crucial role in cognitive development, especially in children. The ability to perceive and organize sensory information is essential for the development of cognitive skills such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.  In this blog post, we'll look at perceptual laws of organization, focusing on the Gestalt principles, and share everyday examples to make them easy to understand.

1. Law of Proximity

The law of proximity states that we tend to group objects that are close together as belonging together. For example, when you see a row of trees along the roadside, you perceive them as a single group rather than individual trees.

Everyday Example: In a grocery store, items are often arranged close together in sections, like fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. We automatically group them based on their proximity, making it easier to navigate the store.

Importance in child cognitive development:

Children tend to group objects that are close together as belonging together. An example of this is when children sort their toys based on their proximity to each other. They may group all their cars together or all their dolls together based on how close they are to each other.

2. Law of Similarity

The law of similarity suggests that we naturally group objects that look similar. This can be based on color, shape, size, or other visual features.

Everyday Example: When you see a group of people wearing the same sports team jersey, you automatically assume they're fans of the same team because of their similar appearance.

Importance in child cognitive development:

Children naturally group objects that look similar based on factors like color, shape, size, or other visual features. An example of this is when children sort their crayons based on their color. They may group all the red crayons together or all the blue crayons together because they look similar.

3. Law of Continuity

The law of continuity states that our brains prefer to see continuous lines or patterns, rather than broken or disjointed ones. We often perceive elements in a way that creates the smoothest or least abrupt path.

Everyday Example: When you see a line of parked cars, you might perceive them as a single, continuous line, even if there are small gaps between them.

Importance in child cognitive development:

Children prefer to see continuous lines or patterns and will often perceive elements in a way that creates the smoothest or least abrupt path. An example of this is when children trace a shape or letter. They tend to follow a continuous path, creating the smoothest and least abrupt lines possible.

4. Law of Closure

According to the law of closure, we tend to fill in gaps or complete incomplete shapes in our minds to create a whole image. This helps us make sense of partial or hidden objects.

Everyday Example: If you see a partially hidden sign behind a tree, your brain will likely fill in the missing parts of the sign, allowing you to recognize what it says.

Importance in child cognitive development:

Children tend to fill in gaps or complete incomplete shapes in their minds to create a whole image, allowing them to make sense of partial or hidden objects. An example of this is when children draw a picture of a person. They may not draw all the body parts, but their brain fills in the missing information to create a complete image.

5. Law of Common Fate

The law of common fate states that we tend to group objects that move in the same direction or have the same motion pattern.

Everyday Example: When you watch a flock of birds flying together, you perceive them as a single group because they're all moving in the same direction.

Importance in child cognitive development:

Children tend to group objects that move in the same direction or have the same motion pattern. An example of this is when children watch a group of animals running. They may perceive them as a single group because they're all moving in the same direction.

6. Law of Prägnanz (Simplicity)

The law of Prägnanz, also known as the law of simplicity, suggests that we tend to interpret ambiguous or complex images in the simplest way possible.

Everyday Example: When you look at clouds, you might see shapes that resemble familiar objects or animals. Your brain simplifies the complex patterns into something more recognizable.

Importance in child cognitive development:

Children tend to interpret ambiguous or complex images in the simplest way possible. An example of this is when children see a cloud in the sky that looks like a familiar shape. Their brain simplifies the complex pattern into something more recognizable, like a heart or an animal.

Conclusion:

The perceptual laws of organization help us make sense of the world by allowing us to process and organize sensory information effectively. By understanding these principles, cognitive psychology students can gain a deeper insight into human perception and how we navigate our complex environment. The laws of perceptual organization play a vital role in cognitive development in children. They guide children's perception and understanding of the world around them, allowing them to make sense of sensory information effectively. By understanding the principles of perceptual organization, cognitive psychology students can gain a deeper insight into how perception influences cognitive development in children. Keep these everyday examples in mind as you explore the fascinating world of perception in your studies. 

References:

1. Attneave, F. (1954). Some informational aspects of visual perception. Psychological Review, 61(3), 183-193.
2. Coren, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1980). Principles of Perceptual Organization and Spatial Distortion: The Gestalt Illusions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 6(3), 404-412.
3. Epstein, W. (2014). The illusion of conscious will. MIT press.
4. Gestalt Theory (n.d.). Gestalt Psychology: A Primer. Retrieved from http://www.gestalttheory.net/about-gestalt-psychology/a-primer
5. Gibson, J. J. (1966). The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Houghton Mifflin.
6. Goldstein, E. B. (2019). Sensation and Perception (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
7. Hochberg, J. (1978). Perception (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
8. Hoffman, D. D. (1998). Visual Intelligence: How We Create What We See. W. W. Norton & Company.
9. Luck, S. J., & Hollingworth, A. (2013). Visual Memory. Oxford University Press.
10. Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information. Henry Holt and Company.
11. Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and Reality: Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology. W. H. Freeman.
12. Palmer, S. E. (1999). Vision science: Photons to phenomenology. MIT Press.
13. Rock, I. (1983). The logic of perception. MIT Press.
14. Segall, M. H., Campbell, D. T., & Herskovits, M. J. (1966). The Influence of Culture on Visual Perception. Bobbs-Merrill.
15. Sheppard, L. A. (2015). Visual illusions in art and science. Springer.
16. Treisman, A. M. (1996). The binding problem. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 6(2), 171-178.

17. Köhler, W. (1947). Gestalt psychology: An introduction to new concepts in modern psychology. Liveright Publishing Corporation.
18. Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
19. Segall, M. H., Campbell, D. T., & Herskovits, M. J. (1963). Cultural differences in the perception of geometric illusions. Science, 139(3550), 769-771.
20. Wagemans, J., Elder, J. H., Kubovy, M., Palmer, S. E., Peterson, M. A., Singh, M., & von der Heydt, R. (2012). A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1172-1217.
21. Wertheimer, M. (1923). Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt II. Psychologische Forschung, 4, 301-350.
22. Wertheimer, M. (1938). Laws of organization in perceptual forms. In W. Ellis (Ed.), A source book of Gestalt psychology (pp. 71-88). Routledge.
23. Zaidi, Q. (2018). Perception and reality: Why our brains don’t always match what we see. Princeton University Press.

 

Cognitive Psychology: Pattern Recognition, Template Matching and Feature Analysis

 

(CP-08) Pattern Recognition, Template Matching and Feature Analysis

Pattern Recognition: How Humans and Animals Learn and Adapt

Pattern recognition is the process of identifying and categorizing information based on its characteristics. Humans and animals are naturally equipped with the ability to recognize patterns, whether it is in speech, images, or even complex behaviors. This ability is essential for survival and has been the subject of research and development in various fields such as computer science, psychology, and neuroscience. In this blog post, we will explore the concept of pattern recognition and its role in human and animal cognition.

Definition and Concept:

Pattern recognition is a cognitive process that involves identifying and categorizing information based on its features. It is a fundamental aspect of human and animal cognition and is used in various tasks such as language acquisition, speech recognition, and visual perception. Pattern recognition can be either supervised, where the individual is taught to recognize specific patterns, or unsupervised, where the individual learns to recognize patterns without explicit instruction.

Learning the Alphabet in Order

One of the earliest examples of pattern recognition in humans is the process of learning the alphabet in order. Using the pattern recognition technique, if we say "A, B, C" to a child repeatedly, the child will eventually say "C" after hearing "A" and "B" in proper sequence.. This process involves both visual and auditory recognition and helps children develop their language skills.

Recognizing Patterns of Past and Future Tasks:

Pattern recognition is also essential in recognizing patterns in past and future tasks. Humans can learn from past experiences and recognize patterns in behavior and outcomes. This ability helps them adapt to new situations and make informed decisions. Similarly, humans can recognize patterns in future tasks and plan their actions accordingly.

Connection between Memories and Information:

The ability to recognize patterns is closely linked to memory formation and retrieval. When humans learn new information, they create connections between neurons in their brains, and these connections are strengthened over time. When they encounter similar information later, the strengthened connections help them recognize patterns and retrieve relevant memories.

The Development of Neural Networks:

The development of neural networks in the brain is crucial for pattern recognition. Neural networks are interconnected groups of neurons that work together to recognize patterns and process information. As humans and animals learn and adapt, their neural networks change, allowing them to recognize new patterns and adjust their behavior accordingly.

Pattern Recognition and Animals:

Animals also use pattern recognition in their daily lives. For example, birds use pattern recognition to recognize their own songs and the songs of other birds. This ability helps them communicate with other birds and find mates. Similarly, animals use pattern recognition to recognize predators, prey, and other environmental cues that are important for their survival.

Template Matching

Template matching is a process where the brain matches incoming sensory information to stored templates or mental representations of objects in memory. For example, when you see a car, your brain matches the sensory input of the car's features (such as its shape, color, and size) to the stored template of what a car looks like. If the incoming sensory information closely matches the stored template, the object is identified quickly and accurately.

Template matching theory proposes that the brain uses pre-existing mental templates to identify objects. These templates are stored in the brain based on past experiences with objects. According to this theory, the brain matches the incoming sensory information to these templates to identify the object.

·         One strength of this theory is that it can explain how people can recognize objects quickly, even when they are presented in different orientations or sizes.

·         However, a weakness of this theory is that it cannot explain how people recognize novel objects that do not match any pre-existing templates.

Feature Analysis:

Feature Analysis is a process where the brain breaks down complex objects into simpler features or components. These features are then stored in mental representations of the features in memory to identify the object. For example, when you see a face, your brain analyzes the features of the face (such as the eyes, nose, and mouth) and compares them to stored representations of these features to identify the person.

Feature analysis theory proposes that the brain breaks down objects into simpler components or features for identification. According to this theory, objects are recognized based on their features, such as lines, shapes, and colors. These features are compared to stored mental representations of the features to identify the object.

·         One strength of this theory is that it can explain how people can recognize novel objects that do not match any pre-existing templates.

·         However, a weakness of this theory is that it cannot explain how people can recognize objects quickly and accurately, even when the objects are presented in different orientations or sizes.

Comparing Template matching theory and Feature analysis theory: While both template matching and feature analysis theories have their strengths and weaknesses, they can be seen as complementary theories. For example, it is possible that the brain uses both template matching and feature analysis to recognize objects. In this view, the brain first matches the incoming sensory information to stored templates, and then uses feature analysis to refine the identification process.

Conclusion

Pattern recognition is a fundamental aspect of human and animal cognition. It allows individuals to identify and categorize information based on its characteristics, and it plays a crucial role in learning and adaptation. The ability to recognize patterns is closely linked to memory formation and neural network development, and it is essential for survival in the natural world. By understanding the concept of pattern recognition, we can develop new technologies and strategies that enhance human and animal cognitive abilities. Template matching and feature analysis are two important theories in psychology that help us understand how the brain processes visual information and recognizes objects. Both theories have strengths and weaknesses, and researchers use them to investigate different aspects of perception and cognition. By comparing these theories, we can gain a better understanding of how the brain works and how it processes sensory information.

References:

1. Bishop, C. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning (Information Science and Statistics). Springer.
2. Erickson, M. A., & Kruschke, J. K. (1998). Rules and exemplars in category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127(2), 107-140.
3. Gagné, C. L., & Shoben, E. J. (1997). Influence of thematic relations on the comprehension of modifier-noun combinations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23(1), 71-87.
4. Goldstone, R. L. (1994). Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 178-200.
5. Rogers, T. T., & McClelland, J. L. (2004). Semantic cognition: A parallel distributed processing approach. MIT Press.
6. Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement learning: An introduction. MIT Press.
7. Weng, J., McClelland, J. L., Pentland, A., Sporns, O., Stockman, I., & Sur, M. (2001). Autonomous mental development by robots and animals. Science, 291(5504), 599-600.
8. Bruce, V., & Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77(3), 305-327.
9. Palmer, S. E. (1999). Vision science: Photons to phenomenology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
10. Pelli, D. G. (1987). The visual analysis of texture. In M. Landy & A. Movshon (Eds.), Computational models of visual processing (pp. 299-316). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
11. Tarr, M. J., & Bulthoff, H. H. (1998). Image-based object recognition in man, monkey, and machine. Cognition, 67(1-2), 1-20.
12. Treisman, A. (1986). Features and objects: The fourteenth Bartlett memorial lecture. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38A(4), 527-557.

Cognitive Psychology: Memory and Types of Memory

 

(CP-07) Memory and Types of Memory

Memory is an essential aspect of human cognition, enabling individuals to remember past experiences, learn new information, and make decisions based on previous knowledge. Memory is a complex and multi-faceted process that involves several types and subtypes of memory. In this article, we will explore the different types of memory and their subtypes, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Memory formation and retrieval involve several processes, including encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding: During encoding, information is perceived and transformed into a neural code that can be stored in the brain.

Storage: Storage involves the consolidation of the memory into long-term storage, where it can be retrieved later.

Retrieval: Retrieval involves accessing stored information and bringing it back into consciousness.

These processes are complex and involve various brain regions and neural pathways, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex.

Types of Memory:

Memory can be broadly classified into three main types, each with its unique characteristics and functions:

1. Sensory Memory
2. Short-term Memory
3. Long-term Memory

Sensory Memory:

Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory processing, which receives and temporarily holds sensory information from the environment. Sensory memory is further divided into two subtypes, which are:

1. Iconic Memory: Iconic memory is a subtype of sensory memory that is responsible for processing and storing visual information. It is also known as visual sensory memory and lasts for a very short time, ranging from 0.5 to 2 seconds.
2. Echoic Memory: Echoic memory is another subtype of sensory memory that processes and stores auditory information. It is also known as auditory sensory memory and can last up to four seconds.

Short-term Memory:

Short-term memory is the type of memory responsible for holding and manipulating information for a brief period. Short-term memory has a limited capacity, and the information stored in this type of memory is quickly forgotten if not rehearsed or encoded into long-term memory. It can hold information for up to 20-30 seconds, but the duration can be increased with the use of mnemonic strategies.

Working memory is called "working" because it actively manipulates and processes information in order to complete everyday task, rather than simply storing it like long-term memory. This active manipulation involves the use of attention and cognitive control to select and organize information, as well as to update and maintain it in an active state for short periods of time.

Short-term memory is essential for everyday functioning, such as remembering phone numbers, following instructions, and performing mental calculations.

Long-term Memory:

Long-term memory is the type of memory responsible for storing information for an extended period. It is divided into two subtypes, which are:

1. Explicit Memory: Explicit memory is also known as declarative memory and is responsible for storing information that can be consciously retrieved, such as facts, events, and personal experiences. Explicit memory is further divided into two subtypes, which are:

·         Episodic Memory: Episodic memory is responsible for storing information about specific events or episodes that have been experienced by an individual. It enables individuals to recall past experiences and events in vivid detail, such as the first day of school, a family vacation, or a significant life event.

·         Semantic Memory: Semantic memory is responsible for storing general knowledge and facts that are not related to personal experiences, such as the meaning of words, concepts, and principles.

2. Implicit Memory: Implicit memory is responsible for storing information that is not consciously accessible, such as skills, habits, and conditioned responses. Implicit memory enables individuals to perform tasks without conscious awareness, such as riding a bike, typing on a keyboard, or playing a musical instrument.

Memory plays a critical role in our daily lives, influencing our decision-making, problem-solving, and overall cognitive functioning. It is also an important aspect of various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, and education.

Research has shown that memory can be influenced by several factors, such as age, genetics, environment, and emotions. For example, as we age, our memory capacity and efficiency tend to decline, making it more challenging to remember information accurately.

Furthermore, emotions can impact memory processing, with emotionally charged events often being better remembered than neutral events. This is due to the amygdala, a part of the brain responsible for processing emotions, which can enhance memory consolidation and retrieval.

Memory can also be affected by various disorders, such as amnesia, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. These disorders can impact different types and subtypes of memory, leading to impairments in memory processing and retrieval.

Conclusion:

Memory is a complex and dynamic process that is essential for human cognition and functioning. Memory is multi-faceted process that involves several types and subtypes of memory. Understanding the different types of memory and their subtypes is essential for cognitive psychology students to understand the mechanisms underlying memory processing and retrieval. Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory are the three main types of memory, with each subtype serving a unique function in the overall process of memory.

 

References:

1. Anderson, J. R. (1974). Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 6(4), 451–474.
2. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. The psychology of learning and motivation, 2, 89-195.
3. Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29.
4. Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. Psychology of learning and motivation, 8, 47-89.
5. Budson, A. E., & Price, B. H. (2005). Memory dysfunction. New England Journal of Medicine, 352(7), 692-699.
6. Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies.
7. Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory?. Progress in brain research, 169, 323-338.
8. Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 11(6), 671-684.
9. Craik, F. I., & Rose, N. S. (2012). Memory encoding and aging: A neurocognitive perspective. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(7), 1729-1739.
10. Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook. Psychology Press.
11. Fuster, J. M. (2009). Cortex and memory: emergence of a new paradigm. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(11), 2047-2072.
12. Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., & Mangun, G. R. (2014). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. WW Norton & Company.
13. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97.
14. Morris, R. G., Garrud, P., Rawlins, J. N., & O'Keefe, J. (1982). Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions. Nature, 297(5868), 681-683.
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16. Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, memory, and cognition, 21(4), 803.
17. Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13(3), 501–518.
18. Schacter, D. L., & Tulving, E. (1994). What are the memory systems of 1994?. In Memory systems (pp.

19. Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2007). The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: Remembering the past and imagining the future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1481), 773-786.
20. Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological monographs: General and applied, 74(11), 1-29.
21. Squire, L. R., & Zola, S. M. (1996). Structure and function of declarative and nondeclarative memory systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(24), 13515-13522.
22. Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 1-25.
23. Wixted, J. T. (2004). The psychology and neuroscience of forgetting. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 235-269.

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Psychology: Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system

 

(ITP-08) Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system

 

The central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) helps control our bodies and minds. For psychology students, knowing how the CNS works is very important. This blog post will give you a basic understanding of the CNS.

1. The CNS: A Two-Part System

The CNS has two main parts: the brain and the spinal cord. These parts work together to send and receive information. They are involved in everything from simple reflexes to complex thinking.

1.1 The Brain: The Control Center

The human brain is a complicated organ with different areas that have specific jobs:

The forebrain includes the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is responsible for thinking, planning, and problem-solving. The thalamus and hypothalamus help regulate sensory information and basic functions like hunger and thirst.

The midbrain is responsible for coordinating visual and auditory information and regulating eye movements.

The hindbrain includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. The cerebellum helps with balance and coordination, while the pons and medulla oblongata control basic functions like breathing and heart rate.

Understanding these different parts of the brain can help us better understand how the brain works and how it affects our behavior and emotions.

1.2 The Spinal Cord: The Information Highway

The spinal cord is a long, thin tube that runs down our back. It connects the brain to the rest of the body. The spinal cord sends messages between the brain and the rest of the body, helping us move and feel sensations like touch and pain.

2. The CNS and Psychology

The CNS plays a big role in psychology because it affects our emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. When we study the CNS, we can learn more about mental health and treatments for psychological problems.

3. The Neurons: The Building Blocks of the CNS

The CNS is made up of billions of nerve cells called neurons. These neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and the axon. The dendrites receive information, the cell body processes it, and the axon sends it to other neurons or muscles.

3.1 Neurotransmitters: Chemical Messengers

Neurons communicate with each other using chemicals called neurotransmitters. These chemicals help send messages across the tiny gaps between neurons, called synapses. Different neurotransmitters are responsible for different functions, such as regulating mood or controlling movement.

Understanding the CNS is important for students. By knowing how the brain and spinal cord work together, we can better understand human behavior and emotions. As you continue your studies, remember that the CNS is the key to unlocking the secrets of the mind.

The peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system is a complex network of nerves and neurons that extend throughout the body, branching out from the brain and spinal cord to reach every part of our anatomy. It's responsible for conveying information from the sensory organs to the brain, as well as transmitting signals from the brain to the muscles and glands that control our actions and responses.

The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two major subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system is responsible for controlling voluntary movements and sensations, such as those involved in walking, talking, and touching objects.

The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

v  Within the autonomic nervous system, there are two more divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

1.    The sympathetic nervous system is activated during times of stress or danger, preparing the body for a "fight or flight" response. This triggers the release of hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, which increase heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.

2.    The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "rest and digest" response, promoting relaxation and digestion.

Damage to the peripheral nervous system can lead to a variety of symptoms and conditions, including numbness, tingling, weakness, and loss of coordination. Some common peripheral neuropathies include carpal tunnel syndrome, sciatica, and diabetic neuropathy. Treatments for peripheral nervous system disorders depend on the underlying cause and may include medications, physical therapy, and surgery.

Overall, the peripheral nervous system plays a critical role in our ability to sense and respond to the world around us. Understanding its functions and disorders can help us better appreciate the incredible complexity of the human body and mind.

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