Psychology: Processes and techniques of improving memory (Mnemonics)

 

(ITP-15) Processes and techniques of improving memory (Mnemonics)

Abstract:  Mnemonic devices are a type of memory aid that help individuals remember information more easily. They take different forms, such as acronyms, rhymes, images, stories, and the method of loci. The article highlights the benefits of mnemonic devices and how they work. Mnemonic devices function by creating mental associations between pieces of information that can be challenging to remember. By organizing information in this way, mnemonic devices make it easier for individuals to retrieve information when needed. The article suggests several tips for effectively using mnemonic devices, such as keeping it simple, practicing regularly, and connecting the devices to meaningful contexts. Psychology students can benefit from using mnemonic devices to enhance their memory, creativity, and understanding of the material, and to reduce study time. The article encourages students to incorporate mnemonic devices consistently and creatively in their learning to achieve academic success.Top of Form

Mnemonic Devices: A Powerful Tool for improving memory

Mnemonic devices are a powerful tool that can help psychology students remember important information, concepts, and theories. By using mnemonic devices, you can create mental shortcuts that allow you to store and retrieve information more easily. In this article, we will explore what mnemonic devices are, how they work, and how you can use them to enhance your learning as a psychology student.

What are Mnemonic Devices?

Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help us to remember information more easily. These devices can take many forms, including acronyms, rhymes, images, and stories. Mnemonic devices are based on the idea that our brains are better at remembering information that is organized and presented in a way that is easy to recall.

How Do Mnemonic Devices Work?

Mnemonic devices work by creating mental associations between pieces of information that might otherwise be difficult to remember. For example, you might use an acronym to remember a list of items or a rhyme to remember a concept. These mental associations help to organize the information in your mind and make it easier to retrieve when needed.

 Mnemonic Devices

There are many different types of mnemonic devices that you can use as a psychology student. Here are some examples:

1. The Method of Loci: The method of loci — sometimes called the “memory palace technique” — involves remembering items based on their locations.
2. Chunking involves breaking down larger pieces of information into smaller, more manageable chunks. Both methods can help you to surpass the typical short-term memory limit and enhance your overall memory and retention.
3. Acronyms: An acronym is a word that is created by using the first letter of each word in a phrase. For example, to remember the five stages of grief (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance), you might use the acronym DABDA. WAPDA, LGU, WHO
4. Rhymes: A rhyme is a word that has the same sound as another word. For example, Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are
5. Visual Images: A visual image is a mental picture that helps you to remember something. For example, to remember the different parts of the brain, you might imagine a house with different rooms representing different brain regions.
6. Stories: A story is a narrative that helps you to remember information. For example, to remember the stages of prenatal development (germinal, embryonic, fetal), you might create a story about a baby bird hatching from an egg, growing feathers, and learning to fly.

Benefits of Mnemonic Devices

Using mnemonic devices as a psychology student can provide a number of benefits, including:

1. Improved Memory: By using mnemonic devices, you can improve your ability to remember information, which can help you to do better in your coursework and on exams.
2. Reduced Study Time: By using mnemonic devices, you can save time and effort in studying by reducing the amount of time you need to spend reviewing material.
3. Enhanced Creativity: Creating and using mnemonic devices requires a certain level of creativity, which can help to stimulate your mind and enhance your learning.
4. Increased Understanding: By organizing and connecting pieces of information through mnemonic devices, you can gain a deeper understanding of the material.

Tips for Using Mnemonic Devices

Here are some tips for using mnemonic devices effectively:

1. Keep It Simple: Mnemonic devices work best when they are simple and easy to remember.
2. Be Creative: Don't be afraid to be creative when creating mnemonic devices. The more creative and memorable the device, the better it will work.
3. Practice, Practice, Practice: The more you use mnemonic devices, the more effective they will be. Practice using them until they become second nature.
4. Use Them Consistently: Mnemonic devices are most effective when used consistently. Use them to review material before class, to study for exams, and to refresh your memory before writing papers.

5. Connect Them to Meaningful Contexts: To help make your mnemonic devices even more effective, try connecting them to meaningful contexts or personal experiences. This can help you to better remember the information and make it more relevant to you.
6. Use Them in Group Study Sessions: Mnemonic devices can be a great tool to use during group study sessions. Work with your peers to create devices that are meaningful and easy to remember.

In conclusion, mnemonic devices can be a powerful tool for psychology students to improve their memory, reduce study time, enhance creativity, and increase understanding of the material. By using these devices consistently and creatively, you can take your learning to the next level and achieve academic success in your psychology studies.

References:

1. Anderson, J. R. (2014). Cognitive psychology and its implications (8th ed.). Worth Publishers.
2. Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422
3. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266
4. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363
5. Gross, R. (2019). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour. Hodder Education.
6. Kornell, N., Hays, M. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2009). Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(4), 989–998. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015729
7. McLeod, S. A. (2019). Mnemonics. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/mnemonics.html
8. Medina, J. (2014). Brain rules: 12 principles for surviving and thriving at work, home, and school. Pear Press.
9. Oakley, B., & Sejnowski, T. (2018). A mind for numbers: How to excel at math and science (even if you flunked algebra). Penguin.
10. Roediger, H. L. III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x
11. Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003
12. Schacter, D. L., & Szpunar, K. K. (2015). Enhancing attention and memory during video-recorded lectures. Scholarly Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 1(2), 160–167. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000037
13. Smith, S. M., & Rothkopf, E. Z. (1984). Contextual enrichment and distribution of practice in the classroom. Cognition and Instruction, 1(4), 341–358. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0104_3

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Psychology: The Concept, Process and Types of Memory

 (ITP-14) The Concept, Process and Types of Memory

 

Abstract: Memory is a fascinating and complex phenomenon that plays a crucial role in our everyday lives, and understanding memory is important for students in their studies, future careers, and personal relationships. This blog explores the different types of memory, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, which is divided into explicit and implicit memory. The processes involved in memory formation and retrieval, such as encoding, storage, and retrieval, are also discussed. By understanding these processes, we can improve our memory and enhance our ability to learn and remember information. Additionally, this blog provides tips for improving memory, which can be helpful for students and anyone seeking to enhance their cognitive abilities. Overall, understanding memory is essential for success in various aspects of life, and this blog provides valuable insights into this complex phenomenon.

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Memory is a fascinating and complex phenomenon that plays a crucial role in our everyday lives. As students, understanding memory is important because it can help us in our studies, our future careers, and even in our personal relationships. In this blog, we will explore the different types of memory, the processes involved in memory formation and retrieval, and some tips for improving our memory.

Processes Involved in Memory Formation and Retrieval:

Memory formation and retrieval involve several processes, including:

1. Encoding: This is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.
2. Storage: This is the process of retaining information in memory.
3. Retrieval: This is the process of accessing stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness.

Types of Memory:

There are several types of memory, each of which plays a different role in our lives. Here are some of the main types of memory:

1. Sensory Memory: This is the initial stage of memory and it holds information from our senses (such as vision, hearing, and touch) for a very short period of time (usually less than a second). ensory memory is the initial stage of memory that holds information from our senses for a very short period of time. It is divided into different types, including iconic memory and echoic memory.

·         Iconic Memory: Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that holds visual information for a brief period of time, typically less than a second.

·         Echoic Memory: Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that holds auditory information for a brief period of time, typically a few seconds.

2. Short-term Memory: This type of memory holds information for a brief period of time (usually a few seconds to a minute) and has a limited capacity (7±2 items).

·         Working Memory: This type of memory is similar to short-term memory but also involves manipulation of information. It is used in tasks that require active processing of information, such as problem-solving.

3. Long-term Memory: This type of memory has a much greater capacity and can hold information for a much longer period of time (from minutes to a lifetime). It is divided into two main types:

·         Explicit Memory (also known as Declarative Memory): This type of memory is conscious and involves the recall of facts, events, and experiences. It is divided into two subtypes:

v  Episodic Memory: This type of memory involves the recall of specific events or experiences, such as what you did on your last birthday.

v  Semantic Memory: This type of memory involves the recall of general knowledge, such as the capital of a country.

·         Implicit Memory (also known as Non-declarative Memory): This type of memory is unconscious and involves the recall of skills, habits, and other non-conscious forms of learning. Examples include riding a bike or playing a musical instrument.

Everyday Examples of Different Types of Memory:

• Sensory Memory: Remembering the sound of a fire truck siren after it has passed by, or the image of a bright flash of lightning.
• Short-Term Memory: Recalling a phone number that was just heard, or remembering the items on a grocery list while walking through the store.
• Long-Term Memory: Recalling a childhood memory, or remembering the name of a childhood friend.

The Interlinking of Human and Computer Memory: 

    The concept of human memory and computer memory are interlinked in many ways. Computer memory, like human memory, involves the storage and retrieval of information. 

    The architecture of computer memory is inspired by the human brain, with features such as RAM and cache memory that function similarly to the way human short-term memory works. Additionally, computer memory is used to enhance human memory through technology, such as using external and internal hard drives or cloud storage to store and retrieve information as Long Term Memory. Overall, the study of computer memory has greatly expanded our understanding of human memory and how it functions.

References:

1. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. Psychology of learning and motivation, 2, 89-195.
2. Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29.
3. Conway, M. A. (2009). Memory and the self. Journal of memory and language, 61(3), 219-233.
4. Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory?. Progress in brain research, 169, 323-338.
5. Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 11(6), 671-684.
6. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie [On Memory: Investigations in Experimental Psychology]. Duncker & Humblot.
7. Eichenbaum, H. (2000). A cortical-hippocampal system for declarative memory. Nature reviews Neuroscience, 1(1), 41-50.
8. Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe. Lippincott-Raven.
9. Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of neural science. McGraw-Hill.
10. Nadel, L., & Moscovitch, M. (1997). Memory consolidation, retrograde amnesia and the hippocampal complex. Current opinion in neurobiology, 7(2), 217-227.
11. Roediger III, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15(1), 20-27.
12. Roediger III, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 803-814.
13. Schacter, D. L. (2001). The seven sins of memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience. American Psychologist, 56(3), 182-193.
14. Schacter, D. L., & Tulving, E. (1994). What are the memory systems of 1994?. In Memory systems 1994 (pp. 1-38). MIT Press.
15. Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological review, 99(2), 195-231.
16. Squire, L. R., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1991). The medial temporal lobe memory system. Science, 253(5026), 1380-1386.
17. Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 1-25.

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Psychology: Learning by Conditioning; Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

 

(ITP-13) Learning by Conditioning;
Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Introduction:

Classical and operant conditioning are two of the most important concepts in the field of psychology that explain how we learn and modify our behavior based on our surroundings. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning. Classical conditioning involves three main components: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned stimulus, while operant conditioning includes reinforcement and punishment. Skinner, believed that behavior is shaped by its consequences, and that behavior that is reinforced is more likely to be repeated in the future. The difference between classical and operant conditioning lies in the type of learning. In this blog, we will discuss these two concepts, their processes, real-life examples, and the difference between them. Understanding these concepts can help us modify our behavior and achieve desired outcomes in our everyday life.

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Classical and operant conditioning are two of the most fundamental concepts in the field of psychology. Both of these concepts explain how we learn and modify our behavior based on the environment around us. In this blog, we will discuss classical and operant conditioning, how they differ, and provide real-life examples of each.

Classical Conditioning:

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli. This type of learning was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who was conducting research on digestion in dogs.

Pavlov's experiment:

In Pavlov's experiments, the food was the unconditioned stimulus (US) because the dogs naturally salivated when they saw it. The sound of the metronome was originally a neutral stimulus (NS) because it didn't make the dogs salivate. But after conditioning, the sound of the metronome became the conditioned stimulus (CS) because the dogs learned to associate it with the food. The dogs' responses followed the same pattern: the conditioned response (CR) was the response to the sound of the metronome, while the unconditioned response (UR) was the response to the food.

Classical conditioning involves three main components:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The unconditioned stimulus is the natural stimulus that triggers a response without any prior learning. In Pavlov's experiment, the food was the UCS.
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unconditioned response is the natural response that occurs in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's experiment, the UCR was the dogs' salivation in response to the food.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The conditioned stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a learned response. In Pavlov's experiment, the lab technician became the CS, as the dogs learned to associate him with the food.
4. Conditioned response (CR): Conditioned response is the learned response to a conditioned stimulus. The dog began to salivate in response to the sound of a bell or metronome after it had been repeatedly paired with the presentation of food, even when food was not presented. This salivation in response to the conditioned stimulus was the conditioned response.

Processes of classical conditioning:

1.    Acquisition: The initial stage of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

2.    Extinction: The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

3.    Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

4.    Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, even if these stimuli have not been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

5.    Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that are not associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

An example of classical conditioning in everyday life is the association between the sound of an ice cream truck and the feeling of happiness. When a child hears the sound of an ice cream truck, they may feel happy because they have learned to associate the sound with the treat of ice cream. The sound of the ice cream truck becomes the conditioned stimulus, while the feeling of happiness is the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning:

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is modified by the consequences that follow it. This type of learning is based on the principle that behaviors that are rewarded or punished are more likely to be repeated or avoided in the future.

There are two types of consequences in operant conditioning: reinforcement and punishment.

Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future.

Reinforcement is used to strengthen the behaviour 

•      Positive reinforcement involves giving a desirable stimulus, such as praise or a reward, after a behavior is exhibited. For example, a teacher praising a student for good grades.

•      Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior is exhibited. For example, putting on a seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping sound.

Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future.

Punishment is used to stop the behavior 

•      Positive punishment involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus, such as scolding or spanking, after a behavior is exhibited. For example, a parent scolding their child for breaking a vase.

•      Negative punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus, such as taking away privileges, after a behavior is exhibited. For example, a teenager being grounded for breaking curfew.

The schedule of reinforcement is the pattern in which reinforcement is given. There are four types of schedules of reinforcement: fixed interval, and variable interval fixed ratio, variable ratio.

1.    In a fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time.

2.    In a variable interval schedule, reinforcement is given after a variable amount of time.

3.    In a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses.

4.    In a variable ratio schedule, reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses.

In everyday life, operant conditioning can be seen in various settings, such as school, work, and personal relationships. For example, a boss may give an employee a bonus for meeting a sales goal, or a parent may take away a child's phone for misbehaving.

Skinner believed that behavior is shaped by its consequences, and that behavior that is reinforced (i.e. rewarded) is more likely to be repeated in the future, while behavior that is punished is less likely to be repeated.

An example of operant conditioning in everyday life is a child getting a reward for doing their homework. If a parent promises their child a treat or extra playtime after they complete their homework, the child is more likely to complete their homework in the future. The reward becomes a positive reinforcement for the behavior of doing homework.

Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning:

The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is the type of learning that takes place. Classical conditioning involves learning to associate two stimuli, while operant conditioning involves learning to modify behavior based on the consequences that follow it.

Another difference between the two types of conditioning is the timing of the stimuli and response. In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus precedes the response, while in operant conditioning, the consequence follows the behavior.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, classical and operant conditioning are two fundamental concepts that help explain how we learn and modify our behavior in response to the environment around us. While classical conditioning involves learning to associate two stimuli, operant conditioning involves learning to modify behavior based on the consequences that follow it.

References:

1. Bouton, M. E. (2016). Learning and behavior: A contemporary synthesis. Sinauer Associates.
2. Cherry, K. (2021, March 8). Classical vs. operant conditioning: What’s the difference? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/difference-between-classical-and-operant-conditioning-2794864
3. Domjan, M. (2018). The principles of learning and behavior. Cengage Learning.
4. Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook. Psychology Press.
5. Mackintosh, N. J. (1974). The psychology of animal learning. Academic Press.
6. McLeod, S. A. (2019, Aug 08). Operant conditioning. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
7. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Oxford University Press.
8. Psychology Today. (2021). Classical conditioning. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/classical-conditioning
9. Psychology Today. (2021). Operant conditioning. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/operant-conditioning
10. Rescorla, R. A. (1988). Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is. American Psychologist, 43(3), 151-160.
11. Saul McLeod. (2017, Nov 30). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
12. Shettleworth, S. J. (2010). Cognition, evolution, and behavior (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
13. Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Appleton-Century.
14. Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. Psychological Review, 2(8), 1-109.
15. Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158-177.

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Psychology: Concept and Types of learning

 

(ITP-12) Concept and Types of learning

Introduction:

Psychology examines how individuals learn new knowledge, skills, and behaviors through experiences and interactions with their surroundings. In following blog we will learn the Concept and Types of learning. Observational learning is one of the types of learning, where individuals learn by observing others' behaviors. The Bobo doll experiment conducted by Albert Bandura showcased the power of observational learning in children. Four processes- attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation- impact observational learning. Learning through imitation, modeling, and trial and error methods are fundamental in learning. Trial and error theory of learning, proposed by Edward Thorndike, involves the gradual process of trial and error through repeated practice and experience. The process of cognitive learning involves problem-solving using cognitive processes such as comprehension, memory, and application. These fundamental aspects are essential in cognitive learning.

Definition: Learning is relatively permanent change in behaviour due to practice and experience

Learning refers to the process by which individuals acquire new knowledge, skills, or behaviors through experiences, observations, or interactions with their environment. In psychology, learning is studied as a complex process that involves cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes.

Learning by Observation: Understanding How We Learn by Watching Others

Observational Learning in Childhood:

Children learn by observing their surroundings and the behaviors of others around them. They can learn positive behaviors such as sharing and politeness, as well as negative behaviors such as aggression and violence.

Observational Learning and the Bobo doll Experiment:

In 1961, psychologist Albert Bandura conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment to demonstrate the power of observational learning. Children who observed an adult model behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate the behavior than those who didn't observe it.

Four Processes that Impact Observational Learning:

1. Attention: Learners must pay attention to the behavior being modeled.
2. Retention: Learners must remember the behavior they observed.
3. Reproduction: Learners must have the physical and mental ability to reproduce the behavior.
4. Motivation: Learners must have the desire or motivation to reproduce the behavior.

Imitation:

Imitation is the act of replicating a behavior observed in another person. It is a basic form of learning that allows individuals to acquire new skills and knowledge.

What is a Model?

• A model is the person or object whose behavior is being observed and imitated.
• The model can be anyone, such as a parent, teacher, friend, or celebrity.

Modeling:

Modeling is the process of demonstrating or showing a behavior for someone else to observe and learn from. It is an effective way of teaching new behaviors and skills.

Difference between Imitation and Modeling:

• Imitation is the act of copying a behavior observed in another person.
• Modeling is the process of demonstrating a behavior for someone else to observe and learn from.

Learning by Trial and Error: Understanding the Process of Learning Through Experimentation

Introduction:

Trial and error is a fundamental process of learning through experimentation. It involves trying various methods or approaches until a desired outcome is achieved.

Definition:

• Learning by trial and error is the process of learning from one's mistakes and successes.

Thorndike's Trial and Error Theory:

Edward Thorndike was a psychologist who proposed the trial and error theory of learning. According to this theory, learning is a gradual process of trial and error that occurs through repeated practice and experience.

The Laws of Learning:

• Thorndike identified three laws of learning that explain how trial and error leads to the acquisition of new behaviors and skills.

1. Law of Effect:

The Law of Effect states that behaviors that lead to positive consequences are more likely to be repeated in the future, while behaviors that lead to negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. Positive consequences are referred to as "satisfiers," while negative consequences are referred to as "annoyers." For example, if a student receives praise and a good grade for studying hard, they are more likely to continue studying in the future.

2. Law of Exercise:

The Law of Exercise states that the more a behavior is practiced, the stronger it becomes. This law emphasizes the importance of repetition and practice in the learning process. For example, the more a musician practices their instrument, the better they become.

3. Law of Readiness:

The Law of Readiness states that individuals are more likely to learn when they are ready and motivated to do so. This law emphasizes the importance of being mentally and physically prepared to learn. For example, a student who is well-rested and motivated is more likely to perform well on an exam.

 

Learning by Cognition: Understanding How We Learn through Mental Processes

Learning by Cognition is a process of acquiring new knowledge or skills by identifying, analyzing, and solving problems. In this individual solve the problem by its own thinking processes.

Learning by Insight and the Kohler Experiment:

Wolfgang Köhler, a Gestalt psychologist, conducted an experiment with a chimpanzee named Sultan. Sultan was given two short sticks to retrieve a banana placed outside his cage. After trying unsuccessfully, Sultan accidentally joined the two sticks and was able to retrieve the banana. In subsequent attempts, Sultan solved the problem immediately by joining the two sticks. This experiment demonstrated the use of insight learning

Problem Solving:

Problem solving is a key component of learning by cognition and involves the use of cognitive processes to identify and solve problems.

Components of Cognitive Learning:

There are several fundamental aspects of cognitive learning that are important to understand.

Comprehension: Comprehension involves understanding the meaning and significance of new information or concepts.

Memory: Memory involves the ability to store and retrieve information over time. This type of learning is critical for retaining new information and using it in problem-solving.

Application: Application involves the ability to use new knowledge or skills in practical situations. This type of learning requires the ability to transfer knowledge from one situation to another and apply it in new and different ways.

References:

1. Anderson, J. R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and its implications. Freeman.
2. Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045925
3. Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Harvard University Press.
4. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning (4th ed.). Wiley.
5. Gagné, R. M. (1965). The conditions of learning. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
6. Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
7. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall.
8. Köhler, W. (1925). The mentality of apes. Harcourt, Brace.
9. Lefrançois, G. R. (2012). Theories of human learning: What the professor said (6th ed.). Wadsworth.
10. Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction (2nd ed.). Pearson.
11. McLeod, S. A. (2018). Cognitive learning theory. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html
12. McLeod, S. A. (2019). Operant conditioning. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
13. McLeod, S. A. (2020). Observational learning (modeling). Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/observational-learning.html
14. Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities Press.
15. Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory (pp. 64-99). Appleton-Century-Crofts.
16. Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Charles E. Merrill Publishing.
17. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.
18. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
19. Squire, L. R., & Kandel, E. R. (2000). Memory: From mind to molecules. Scientific American Library.
20. Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence. Macmillan.
21. Thorndike, E. L. (1913). Educational psychology: The psychology of learning. Teachers College, Columbia University.

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