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Saturday, May 27, 2023

Cognitive Psychology: Long Term Memory: Retention in Episodic Memory

 

(CP-19) Long Term Memory: Retention in Episodic Memory


Abstract: This article explores the process of retention in episodic memory, a type of long-term memory that stores information about specific events and experiences. The article discusses the multi-step process of memory formation, including encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval. It emphasizes the importance of strong encoding in enhancing subsequent stages of memory retention. The consolidation phase is examined, highlighting the roles of synaptic and systems consolidation in stabilizing and solidifying memories. The storage phase focuses on the cerebral cortex as the primary site for long-term memory storage, with different areas associated with different types of information. The article also discusses the act of remembering through retrieval, including the influence of cues and the phenomenon of memory modification during reconsolidation. Various factors affecting retention in episodic memory, such as time, emotional significance, rehearsal, interference, sleep, and stress, are addressed. Understanding these factors can enhance learning and memory abilities.

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Introduction

Episodic memory is a type of long-term memory that stores information about specific events and experiences. It is often described as a "mental time machine" because it allows us to remember what happened in the past. Episodic memory is essential for our everyday lives, as it allows us to learn from our experiences, make plans for the future, and form relationships with others.

The creation of an episodic memory is a multi-step process that includes encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval. Each phase contributes to the stability and durability of the memory. This article's main focus is the retention process, which primarily encompasses the stages of consolidation and storage.

The process of retaining information in episodic memory involves a number of steps.

1.       First, the information is encoded,

2.       Then stored in the brain.

3.       This is followed by consolidation, during which the information is strengthened and made more durable.

4.       Finally, the information is retrieved, or brought back into awareness.

1. Memory Encoding

Before we delve into retention, it is crucial to comprehend the first step in memory formation: encoding. This is the process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory. The stronger the encoding process, the better the subsequent stages of memory retention.

The encoding of episodic memories usually happens via a combination of sensory input and emotional processing. The information is then transformed and organized in the hippocampus to enable long-term storage. Factors like attention, emotional state, and mental effort can influence the effectiveness of the encoding process.

2. Consolidation: Solidifying Memories

Following encoding, memories undergo the process of consolidation, which stabilizes and solidifies these memory traces. It involves transferring information from the short-term memory, located in the hippocampus, to more permanent memory structures in the neocortex. This process can take from a few days to several years.

Two types of consolidation occur: synaptic and systems consolidation.

1.       Synaptic consolidation occurs within a few hours after learning and involves structural changes at synapses.

2.       Systems consolidation is a longer process, wherein memories gradually become independent of the hippocampus over time.

Research indicates that sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation, especially in the stabilization and strengthening of episodic memories. During different stages of sleep, the brain replays or rehearses the day's experiences, which facilitates memory consolidation.

3.  Storage: The Long-term Repository

Once memories are consolidated, they are stored for long-term retrieval. The cerebral cortex, the brain's outermost layer, is the primary site for long-term memory storage. Different areas of the cortex are associated with different types of information. For instance, the visual cortex stores visual information, whereas the auditory cortex stores sound-related information.

The level of detail and the duration for which a memory is stored can depend on numerous factors. These include the strength of the original encoding, the consolidation process, and the frequency of memory retrieval or rehearsal.

4. The Act of Remembering: Retrieval

The final stage in memory processing, retrieval, involves recalling the stored information when needed. Successful memory retrieval often depends on cues that can trigger the memory. For instance, the smell of a particular perfume can trigger memories associated with that scent.

However, it's important to note that the act of retrieval can also modify memories. This phenomenon is known as reconsolidation. After retrieval, a memory becomes "plastic," or modifiable, for a brief period before it needs to be consolidated again. This can lead to alterations in the memory, which is one reason why memories can change over time.

Factors Affecting Retention in Episodic Memory

There are a number of factors that can affect the retention of information in episodic memory. These include:

  • The amount of time that mediates between encoding and retrieval: Memories that are retrieved soon after encoding are more likely to be recalled than memories that are retrieved after a long period of time.
  • The emotional significance of the information: Emotionally significant information is more likely to be recalled than information that is not emotionally significant.
  • The amount of rehearsal that takes place: The more often information is rehearsed, the more likely it is to be recalled.
  • The presence of interference: Interference can occur when new information interferes with the retrieval of old information. For example, if you learn a new phone number, it may be difficult to remember your old phone number.

·          The Sleep: Sleep is thought to be essential for the consolidation of memories. During sleep, the brain strengthens the connections between neurons that were activated during encoding. Another important factor is stress. Stress can interfere with the consolidation of memories.

Conclusion:

Episodic memory is a complex and fascinating phenomenon. The process of retaining information in episodic memory involves a number of different steps and factors. By understanding these factors, we can improve our ability to learn and remember information.

References:

  1. Eichenbaum, H. (2017). Prefrontal-hippocampal interactions in episodic memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 18(9), 547–558. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2017.74
  2. Feld, G. B., & Born, J. (2017). Sleep enhances plasticity in the developing brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(10), 787–798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.07.005
  3. Kim, H. (2013). Neural activity that predicts subsequent memory and forgetting: A meta-analysis of 74 fMRI studies. NeuroImage, 54(3), 2446–2461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.045
  4. Kuhl, B. A., & Chun, M. M. (2014). Successful remembering elicits event-specific activity patterns in lateral parietal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(23), 8051–8060. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5412-13.2014
  5. Moser, M.-B., Moser, E. I., & McNaughton, B. L. (2017). Spatial representation in the hippocampal formation: A history. Nature Neuroscience, 20(11), 1448–1464. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4651
  6. Ritchey, M., Wing, E. A., LaBar, K. S., & Cabeza, R. (2013). Neural similarity between encoding and retrieval is related to memory via hippocampal interactions. Cerebral Cortex, 23(12), 2818–2828. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs261
  7. Spaniol, J., Davidson, P. S. R., Kim, A. S. N., Han, H., & Moscovitch, M. (2009). Event-related fMRI studies of episodic encoding and retrieval: Meta-analyses using activation likelihood estimation. Neuropsychologia, 47(8–9), 1765–1779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.02.028
  8. Stickgold, R., & Walker, M. P. (2013). Sleep-dependent memory triage: evolving generalization through selective processing. Nature Neuroscience, 16(2), 139–145. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3303
  9. Tambini, A., & Davachi, L. (2013). Persistence of hippocampal multivoxel patterns into postencoding rest is related to memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(48), 19591–19596. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1314269110
  10. Wixted, J. T., & Mickes, L. (2010). A continuous dual-process model of remember/know judgments. Psychological Review, 117(4), 1025–1054. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020460

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